How Marco Polo's Journey To China Became Possible

Marco Polo's journey to China was made possible by a combination of his family's mercantile background, their connections in Asia, and the political circumstances of the time. Polo's father, Niccolò, and uncle, Maffeo, were merchants who had established trading posts in Constantinople, Sudak in Crimea, and the western part of the Mongolian Empire, which included China. They had also met Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, and acted as his ambassadors to the Pope. In 1271, the 17-year-old Marco Polo embarked on a journey with his father and uncle, travelling along the Silk Road and reaching Kublai Khan's court in China in 1275. Marco Polo's ability to speak several languages and his extensive knowledge of different cultures made him a valuable emissary for Kublai Khan, who sent him on diplomatic missions throughout the empire and Southeast Asia.

The Polo family's mercantile background and wealth

The Polo family were merchants who dealt in rare items like silk, gems, and spices. Marco Polo was born into this mercantile family in 1254 in Venice, Italy. His father, Niccolò, and uncle, Maffeo, were merchants who traded with the Middle East and Asia. They had left Italy for Asia a year before Marco was born and returned to Venice in 1269, where they met Marco for the first time. The Polo family had accumulated considerable wealth and prestige through their trading endeavours. They foresaw political changes in Constantinople and liquidated their assets there, investing in jewels instead. They then set off for the court of Berke Khan, sovereign of the western territories in the Mongol Empire. The Polos doubled their assets during their time at Berke's court and, when political events prevented their return to Venice, they travelled eastward, eventually reaching the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol emperor, in 1265.

The Polo family had a legacy of being shrewd, alert, and courageous. They were well-versed in mercantile subjects, including foreign currency, appraising, and the handling of cargo ships. They were also adventurous and willing to take risks, as evidenced by their extensive travels to the Far East. The wealth and prestige they had accumulated through their trading endeavours allowed them to gain favour with Kublai Khan, who appointed them as his ambassadors to the pope. The family's mercantile background and wealth paved the way for Marco Polo's travels to China, as they had established connections and accumulated knowledge that would be useful for their journey.

Political upheaval in Constantinople

Constantinople was a thriving port city and the capital of the Roman/Byzantine Empire for nearly a millennium. However, in the 13th century, the city underwent several political changes that impacted the Polo family.

In 1204, Constantinople was sacked and occupied by the armies of the Fourth Crusade, establishing the Latin Empire. This occupation lasted until 1261 when the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos liberated the city, restoring it to Byzantine rule.

The Polo family, who had commercial interests in Constantinople, foresaw this political change in 1260. They liquidated their assets, converted their wealth into portable jewels, and left the city. This decision allowed them to preserve their capital and continue their journey east to China.

Constantinople's political upheaval created an opportunity for the Polo family to leave and embark on their journey to Asia, where they eventually met Kublai Khan and served as his ambassadors to the Pope. This journey paved the way for Marco Polo's later travels to China.

The Mongol Empire's expansion

The Mongol Empire, which originated in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, was the largest contiguous empire in history. It was founded in 1206 by Temujin, who assumed the title of Genghis Khan, meaning "universal ruler". Under his leadership, the nomadic tribes of Mongolia were united, and the empire rapidly expanded in all directions.

The expansion of the Mongol Empire was facilitated by several factors, including military innovations, advanced technology, and favourable climate conditions. Genghis Khan implemented a new military structure and tactics such as arrow storms, amassing huge arsenals, and psychological warfare. The Mongols also adopted new technologies like stirrups, composite bows, leather armour, and gunpowder. Additionally, recent research suggests that the Mongol Empire benefited from a 15-year period of mild weather and increased moisture, which provided abundant grass for their horses and improved conditions for livestock breeding.

The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West, stretching from the Sea of Japan to Eastern Europe and southward into parts of the Indian subcontinent. The expansion was marked by the conquest of various regions and the destruction of old ruling powers. Some notable conquests include Northern China, Central Asia, Western Russia, Southern China, the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East, and the collapse of the Song Dynasty.

Kublai Khan's interest in Europe

Kublai Khan was born in 1215 and became the emperor of the enormous Mongolian Empire in 1260. He inherited this empire from his grandfather, Genghis Khan, which covered parts of Asia and Europe. Kublai Khan's interest in Europe can be attributed to several factors:

• He was well-educated and had a keen interest in learning about other cultures, languages, and faiths from a young age. This intellectual curiosity likely extended to Europe, which was part of his empire.
• Kublai Khan attempted to bridge the gap between his predecessors' nomadic customs and the sophisticated civilizations they had conquered. This indicates an interest in integrating and accepting the indigenous customs of conquered peoples, including those in Europe.
• He respected and adopted aspects of Chinese governance, such as the development of a bureaucracy and the use of a census system. As the European parts of his empire were previously under Chinese rule, he would have been influenced by their systems.
• Kublai Khan promoted cultural interaction and exchange within his kingdom, including the East-West exchange of ideas, art, and technology. This interest in cultural fusion and his willingness to adopt foreign ideas likely extended to Europe as well.
• He welcomed foreign intellectuals, artists, and merchants, contributing to the burgeoning trade along the Silk Road, which connected Europe and Asia. This suggests an interest in engaging with and learning from Europeans.
• Kublai Khan's empire included areas adjacent to Europe, such as southern Siberia and the Korean Peninsula. This proximity may have fostered a natural curiosity about the neighbouring continent.
• He had a strong interest in Tibetan healing traditions and included Tibetan monks in his retinue. This interest in Tibetan culture, which has some historical connections to European traditions, may have extended to European knowledge and practices as well.
• Kublai Khan's empire included a diverse range of peoples, and he employed individuals of various nationalities in his administration, demonstrating an openness to external influence and ideas. This openness likely extended to incorporating European knowledge and practices.
• He was known for his inspirational leadership and strategic acumen, which would have included a keen understanding of the different regions within his empire, including Europe.

Marco Polo's role in the court of Kublai Khan

Marco Polo's father, Niccolò, and uncle, Maffeo, were merchants who had travelled extensively through Asia and met Kublai Khan. In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time. In 1271, Marco Polo, his father, and his uncle embarked on a journey to Asia, travelling along the Silk Road. They were received by the royal court of Kublai Khan, who was impressed by Marco's intelligence and humility.

Marco Polo was appointed to serve as Kublai Khan's foreign emissary and was sent on many diplomatic missions throughout the empire and Southeast Asia, including to present-day Burma, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. He also travelled extensively inside China, living in the emperor's lands for 17 years. Kublai Khan took a liking to the young Marco Polo and sent him on a number of special missions to various places in China, Burma, and India. Many of the places that Marco Polo visited during these missions were remote and would not be visited and written about by another European until the 19th century.

When Kublai Khan was in his late 70s, the Polo family became concerned about their safety and their ability to leave China with their amassed wealth. Eventually, after 17 years with the Khan, they were granted permission to leave and head back to Europe. They were assigned one last task: escorting the Mongol princess Kokachin to her betrothed Persian prince Arghun.

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